Judge But, Beware Of Their Cover - 1899 Words

Judge†¦but, Beware of Their Cover Intro: AP by John Updike and A Rose for Emily by William Faulkner are two short stories which reveal to be different, odd and even bizarre in several aspects; conversely, on the other hand, they are very similar. One similarity for John Updike, William Faulkner and many other authors, is being that they follow the three-act structure, which helps to write their story more effectively. Furthermore, in analyzing AP and A Rose for Emily, we see that both share an â€Å"overarching† theme; however, their symbolism and conflicts are different, yet finally, in the end, you will see which one I infer does a better job compared to the other. Genre: AP demonstrates the three act structure very well. In the first†¦show more content†¦In the Act Two, we see Queenie and the girls go up and down the aisles of the store; as the rising action between Sammy and Queenie come face to face. Once the girls finished shopping; Sammy and Queenie meet, connections made, as they enter Sammy’s checkout line setting up for the climatic finale. Obstacles and complications occur when the protagonist; Sammy gets upset at the antagonist, Lengel, the store manager, as he confront the girls, openly in front of customers about being inappropriately dressed. Although, a hard decision to make, Lengel was in the right to say something, due of all the complaints and interruptions within his store. Lengel’s treatment of the girls, hit a nerve in Sammy, causing some tension, friction, getting his heart rate up, wedge an obstacle between him and Lengel. As Sammy proceeds to ring up the purchase, as tension builds within himself fr om the complication, forcing him into thinking of taking action on his own. In act three, as the tension and conflict escalates, Sammy being trapped within a 19-year old body, had no control over teenage testosterone and hormones as they rage and fly out of control; Walter Wells points out â€Å"Sammy is likewise unable to distinguish between the two quite normal impulses† (2). Without any thought, the climax came when, Sammy, on a spur-of-the-moment decided to quit his job, tired of how everyone was treating the girls. The falling action happened when, Sammy ended up telling Lengel off andShow MoreRelatedOur Choice of Clothes Reflect Our Personality662 Words   |  3 Pagesthink we are? How does the way we dress communicate messages about our identities?† (Davis,1992: back cover blurb). What is identity and what role do clothes play in creating it? Use two relevant examples from fashion to support your answer. ‘O Daughter of mine, beware of the revealing hijab that is spreading amongst the women these days and that characterized by †¦ wearing a niqab that covers what is ugly and shows what is beautiful (Al- ‘Umran 2001: 10-111). ‘In the case of sociological interestRead MoreThe Compromise Of Personal Moral Standards1678 Words   |  7 Pagessomeone’s future when he or she makes unruly decisions and forgets to act maturely and instead reacts solely to the situation at hand. Gender role reversal causes thoughts and doubt based on a person’s gender, because of this, this person begins to judge others when judgment is not required and thinks differently about his or her own self and role in society, he or she is compromising moral standards. 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The day his daughter cried out on Jacobs, he said she’dRead MoreSdff783 Words   |  4 Pagesversus private ownership of firms; governmental incentives or barriers for international trade and economic development; fiscal and monetary policy; trade boycotts by other countries; ideological leanings of government executives, legislators and judges, etc.)? 6. What are the major influences on marketing and distribution in Australia (communication, physical geography, climate, fuel prices, transportation infrastructure, warehouse availability, retail outlets, consumer behavior, etc.)? Read MoreA Romantic View Of Hester Prynne Essay1316 Words   |  6 Pages Hester embraces the Romantic ideals of individualism and being true to one’s self, but her ultimate happiness is prevented by the unnatural and unreasonable rigidity of Puritanism. These themes also closely resemble the words of Thoreau: â€Å"I say, beware of all enterprises that require new clothes, and not rather a new wearer of clothes† (Walden). Hawthorne affirms the Romantic concept of emotion over reason by highlighting Hester’s silent and deep love and loyalty to Dimmesdale, but Hawthorne’sRead MoreWho I Am A? Essay1423 Words   |  6 Pagesif you look more closely at my life, at the little details, that’s where it all went wrong. I feel bad for feeling like this because I have people I love, I have nice parents and friends, but when I’m alone, I have nothing. And I feel like people judge me for feeling the way I do when others have it worse. But the amount of pain someone is in shouldn’t be measured by how many scars they have or how many meals they’ve skipped. Does it really have to get that bad in order for people to understand thatRead MoreDifferent Types of Lying1731 Words   |  7 Pagespeople to lie and to be more creative in their lies. In serious lies, the falsehood is usually told to cover up the reward or benefit the liar got by breaking a rule or explicit expectatio n. Also, sometimes people lie to keep their privacy. E. Lying to Avoid Punishment: Lying to avoid punishment is the most common form lying, at least in early childhood (Lewis Saarni, 1993). People lie to cover up their mistakes, and to escape from punishment. According to the American Academy of Child AdolescentRead MoreThe Good and Bad Side of Advertising1657 Words   |  7 Pagesare not turn out what they appear to be. Potential customers would review the options on the item which one shall like to obtain. Just as people do a background research before travelling to an unknown destination. All in all, be beware and â€Å"don’t judge a book by its cover†. (1196 words) BIBLIOGRAPHY Golden, L. L. and Johnson K. A. 1983, The Impact of Sensory Preference and Thinking Versus Feeling Appeals on Advertising Effectiveness, in R. P. Bagozzi and A. M. 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The Fattest Country free essay sample

Because of its huge amount of fast food restaurants, America is the fattest country in the world. Americans spend more money on fast food than on magazines, movies, books, newspapers, and music altogether. The top four, billion dollar establishments starting with the most popular are Subway, McDonald’s, Pizza Hut, and Burger King. However, fast food restaurants cause more environmental damage in America than coal mining and oil extraction. It not only causes environmental damage but also damages to the health of animals, humans, and causes economic damage. For humans, the damage begins slowly, usually starting in childhood. When children get accustomed to the fun ritual of eating fast food, it establishes bad eating habits that carry on into adulthood. People who do not eventually break the habit of fast food addiction become part of the millions of obese Americans who are trapped in the greasy claws of the fast food industry. Young children unknowingly get caught in the illusion of fast food. Assistant professor of the Public Health Reducing Cancer Disparities program, Elva Arredondo said, â€Å"Findings from the [statistical hypothesis test] suggest that overweight children are more likely to recognize fast food logos, while the opposite was true of the normal weight children† (77). Some fast food consumption starts from logo recognition. â€Å"Children as young as 2-11 develop consumption preferences resulting from commercial exposure; at the same time, children in this age group develop strategies for purpose requests and negotiation† (Arredondo 77-78). These â€Å"preferences† put pressure on parents to buy more and more fast food for their child’s pleasure. The more parents buy this unnecessary pleasure for their children, the worse their economic status gets. Arredondo states, â€Å"Recent studies show that fast food restaurant density and the number of McDonald’ s outlets are higher in inferior neighborhoods† (77). In a manner of speaking, fast food companies go after the little people, either â€Å"little people† meaning young children or people with little or no money to spend on junk food they do not need. Even if parents were able to keep their children from becoming fast food gluttons, there is always a possibility that a child could get caught up in his or her teen years. For teens, eating fast food oppresses their immune system and makes them vulnerable to diseases. According to a writer of Women’s Health Guide, Tracee Cornworth, â€Å"Eating fast food meals causes teens and young adults to gain more weight and face an increased risk of developing insulin resistance according to the results of a study funded by the National, Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Fast food not only promotes obesity, but it also serves diabetes on the side. â€Å"Obesity and diabetes is on the rise in this country, and this important study highlights the value of healthy eating habits,’ said NHLBI Acting Director Barbara Alving, M.D† (Cornforth). Cornforth affirms, â€Å"One reason for weight gain may be that a single meal from one of these restaurants often c ontains enough calories to satisfy a person’s caloric requirement for an entire day.† That is up to 2,000 calories eaten in one sitting! On top of all those calories from one meal, more calories are added with additional meals. Gender and socioeconomic status manipulate a person’s ability to oppose fast food, Cornforth declares, â€Å"Study participants included 3,031 young black and white adults who were between the ages of 18-30 from 1985-1986†¦According to the study, men visited fast food restaurants more frequently than women and blacks more frequently than whites.† Adults are fatter than they have been in the past twenty years, and they are still getting larger. Matthew Boyle, a senior writer of the Fortune magazine, says, â€Å"After all, two-thirds of American adults are now over weight, and the fast food industry has been targeted as the primary villain in the obesity crisis.† At least people recognize the culprit, but is that bringing about any change? According to Boyle, â€Å"In the past few years [the fast food industry] has been slapped with numerous amounts of lawsuits on behalf of overweight kids and has been the subject of powerful polemics in the media, such as the 2002 bestseller Fast Food Nation and recent documentary Super Size Me. Is it any wonder, then, that Wendy’s wants to put oranges on its menu?† Apparently, the problem is not that people do not recognize the â€Å"villain† in America’s health crisis. The issue is that although most know that fast food is not good for them, they eat it a nyway. The reasons for this â€Å"although I know it is bad, I will eat it† action are because of the persuasive advertisement of fast food, the accessibility and the inexpensive price. Boyle explains, â€Å"Kimberly Egan, a partner at the center for Culinary Development in San Francisco, who has done menu improvements for McDonald’s, Burger King, and Wendy’s rattles off words that give quality cues ‘slow roasted’, ‘tender’, ‘grilled’, ‘spicy’, ‘fresh cut’ [these descriptions are normally found on TV advertisements]. Egan says that fast food companies use these words to make people think fast food is healthier for them.† It is no amazement that people become subject to their cravings from advertisement with narratives like â€Å"slow roasted† and â€Å"tender.† Boyle states that in September 2002 McDonald’s announced plans to change their frying oil, which would cut tra ns-fat levels 48% by February 2003. He also says that filling a typical fast food fryer with 35 pounds of partially hydrogenated vegetable oil costs about $13; filling it instead with reduced trans-fat soybean oil might cost about $20. Fast food’s unhealthy fat food is only cheap for customers as it is for them. People buy unhealthy food because it is easier on their pocket book than healthy food is. Next to obesity, fast food industries abuse their employees. According to Master of Science in Education, Jeffery Zurlinden, â€Å"Instead of hiring skilled, unionized workers, meat packing plants frequently recruit recent immigrants who are willing to work hard for low pay on assembly lines that turn live cattle into frozen hamburger at record speed.† Fast food industries may not being doing this horrid meat process themselves, but they are condoning it by purchasing the meat. According to Roger Horowitz, Associate Director at the Center for the History of Business, Techn ology, and Society, â€Å"†¦throughout the twentieth century, meatpacking left behind thousands of permanently damaged workers†¦the level of workplace dangers in meatpacking is no longer accurately reflected in government statistics.† .Not only are the employees getting harmed, but the meat also gets contaminated. According to Zurlinden, â€Å"Manure gets mixed with meat, contaminating it with salmonella and E.coli. Schlosser reports a US Department of Health (USDA) study that found 78.6% of ground beef contained microbes spread primarily by fecal material.† Sounds gross, does it not? Yet millions of unsuspecting people eat this â€Å"manure meat† everyday. No wonder these E.coli poisonings happen so frequently. About for 4% of people infected with E.coli develop hemolytic uremic syndrome [a disease that destroys red blood cells] and about 5% of children who develop the syndrome die† (Zurlinden). 4 and 5% may not seem like very much to some peopl e, but would anyone really want to risk their child’s life or their own over a hamburger or chicken nuggets? If there were 25,000 children in America who developed this disease each year, there would be 1250 dead children on a yearly basis! Adults are not the only ones hurt while working. Teens are also victim to pain while working for fast food companies. Zurlinden says, â€Å"Fast food runs on cheap labor, usually supplied by teenagers. Child labor laws that restrict work schedules are often ignored at fast food chains. Although part time employment can teach teenagers responsibility, teenagers who work are more likely to abuse drugs and get into trouble. They also risk getting hurt: Each year about 20,000 teenagers suffer work related injuries, about twice the adult rate.† Since fast food companies want cheap help, then why would they spend precious time and money properly training their teen employees? Some people may say that they have been eating fast food for ye ars and have never gotten ill from it. Yes, some may have done that, but there is always a first time, and why wait until the first time to understand the risk and do something about it? Some may say that fast food is easy to access and is good for on-the-go people. If one is eager to stop gambling his or her life for fast food and wants to eat healthy, there may be a better way to acquire quick meals; making a simple sandwich or slow roasting food for dinner, while one is away from home, are just some examples of how to avoid fast food. This epidemic should have been resolved long before today, but there is still a chance to save lives. Just imagine America losing its â€Å"fattest country† label, obesity rates dropping, and young children learning to live a healthier style of life. Fast food companies could stop condoning the dangerous meat packing industries and begin purchasing meat from organic farmers. They could cease advertising and selling unhealthy, greasy foods, an d start advertising healthy, fresh vegetables and uncontaminated meat. They could acknowledge child labor laws and create a safer working environment for teens. They could stop sugar coating the obesity issue with orange slices and get right to the nitty gritty. Works Cited Boyle, Matthew. CAN YOU REALLY MAKE FAST FOOD HEALTHY?. Fortune 150.3 (2004): 134-140.Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 9 Mar. 2011. Cornforth, Tracee. How Eating Fast Food Affects the Health of Teens and Young Adults.Womens Health Issues Womens Health Questions and Answers Womens Sexual Health. 30 Sept. 2010. Web. 09 Mar. 2011. ;http://womenshealth.about.com/od/girlshealth101/a/fastfoodteenwei.htm;. David Dozier, et al. Brand Name Logo Recognition of Fast Food and Healthy Food among Children.Journal of Community Health 34.1 (2009): 73-78. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 9 Mar. 2011. Horowitz, Roger. That Was a Dirty Job! Technology and Workplace Hazards in Meatpacking over the Long Twentieth Century Horowitz 5 (2): 13. Labor: Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas. 2008. Web. 09 Mar. 2011. ;http://labor.dukejournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/5/2/13;. Zurlinden, Jeffrey. Fast Foods Hidden Dangers. Pope John Said It Best, Capitalism Without Responsibility 14 Apr. 2001. Web. 09 Mar. 2011. ;http://www.fa-ir.org/ai/fastfood_hidden.htm;.

Analysis of Moral Dilemma essays

Analysis of Moral Dilemma essays Philosophers have studied moral concepts of right and wrong for millennia. During this time, great thinkers like Plato, Aristotle, Bentham, and Kant have developed a number of carefully reasoned and eloquent approaches to moral questions. These approaches in the field of ethics can span from metaethics (the core of ethical principles or universal truths) to the field of normative ethics (which takes a much more practical approach to solving specific problems) to the field of applied ethics (which looks at specific issues like abortion or animal rights) (The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Each of these fields of ethics has sparked some often surprisingly elegant approaches to difficult ethical problems. However, in the real word, moral decisions are often much more difficult and confusing than they appear during reasoned ethical analysis. Moral dilemmas like the following illustrate the profound difficulty in coming to an ethical decision under truly trying and confusing circumstances. Imagine that you are an inmate in a concentration camp, and your son is about to be hung by a sadistic prison guard for attempting to escape. The guard wants you to pull out the chair from underneath your son, effectively killing him. The guard says that if you refuse to pull out the chair, he will kill your son and another, innocent, inmate as well. There is no doubt that the guard will carry out his actions. If you decide to pull out the chair from under your son, there are a number of potential consequences, both good and bad. Importantly, if the guard is true to his word, you will have saved the life of another innocent inmate. This is clearly a positive moral action, as preserving human life, especially innocent human life is essentially universally morally desirable. In saving this man's life, you spare both his personal agony, but spare his family and friends f...

HOPE Foundation essays

HOPE Foundation essays In Georgia, there is a program going on that helps out the student immensely. The Georgia State Lottery is used as a device to send hard-working students to college for free. Since the start of the lottery, over 488,00 kids have gone to college on the HOPE scholarship due to the lottery (Message from the President 1). Also, the lottery helps pay for pre-kindergarten facilities and programs, as well as computer and technology upgrades for their high schools through the HOPE foundation. North Carolina needs to take a serious look at the revenue Georgia brings from its lottery and think how it could be beneficial for North Carolina students. First, the lottery helps out a tremendous amount of students through the HOPE program. The way that the Hope scholarship works is that all Georgia high school students that graduates with a 'B' average or higher becomes eligible to receive a grant to help cover the cost of tuition, book, and mandatory fees at any public Georgia college or university and a $3,000 dollar scholarship to any private college (Educational Uses of Lottery Proceeds 1). Also, they will provide full tuition, books, and fees to any technical institute in the state of Georgia. That sounds like a whole lot of incentive for young adults to make a 'B' average in school. I just don't understand why North Carolina does not have the same incentive for our children. To keep the college student a good student, you must also keep a 'B' average in college to keep your scholarship. Georgia has given more than 1 billion dollars toward college bound students since 1993 (HOPE scholarship 1). North Carolina has no pro grams of this sort. Two years after starting college, HOPE recipients have a higher G.P.A. (grade point average), and have earned more credit hours than their counterparts who do not have the HOPE scholarship according to The Council For School Performance (Council for School Perfo ...

Microbial physiology and culture (Practical Oxygen Transfer in a Essay

Microbial physiology and culture (Practical Oxygen Transfer in a Stirred Tank Reactor) - Essay Example In this experiment, this method is used in the determination of KLa. This process is important since it is applied in many fermentation processes which undergo aerobic reactions. This allows meeting the necessary metabolic demands of aerobic microorganisms. In this process, air is passed through a reactor at a constant flow rate at given speed in revolutions per minute. From the data, CL and time, it’s able to calculate KLa using the formula. Drawing a graph of  against time produces a straight line whose gradient is KLa (Karimi, 2013). Question 1 RPM = 200 From the graph, Thus M=0.0594 KLa=3.564 RPM at 400 From the graph, Thus Therefore the slope, m=0.0146 Thus, KLa = 0.0146*60 = 0.876 h-1 RPM at 600 From the graph, Thus Therefore the slope, m=0.0343 Thus, KLa = 0.0343*60 = 2.058 h-1 RPM at 800 From the graph, Thus Therefore the slope, m=0.0344 Thus, KLa = 0.0344*60 = 2.064h-1 Second practical Flow rate 0.5 Rpm 500 From the graph, Thus Therefore the slope, m=0.0114 Thus, KLa = 0.0114*60 = 0.684h-1 Flow rate 1.50 Rpm 500 Start air concentration 5.7 From the graph, Thus Therefore the slope, m= Thus, KLa = *60 = 2.07h-1 Flow rate 2.0 Rpm 500 Start air concentration 5.7 From the graph, Thus Therefore the slope, m= 0.0594 Thus, KLa = 0.0594*60 = 3.564h-1 Question 2 KLa F N Log KLa Log N 3.564 1 200 0.551938 2.30103 2.058 1 600 0.313445 2.778151 2.064 1 800 0.31471 2.90309 Since Log KLa= y log N + constant From the graph, The equation y=-0.4234X + 1.5199 Therefore the constant y=0.4234 KLa F N Log KLa Log F 0.684 0.5 500 -0.16494 -0.30103 2.07 1 500 0.31597 0 3.564 1.5 500 0.551938 0.176091 Since Log KLa= X log F + constant From the graph, The equation y=-1.5127X + 0.2973 Therefore the constant x=1.5127 Question 3 Factors affecting KLa in STR: 1. Culture Conditions 2. Operation of the fermenter 3. Impeller Design Question 4 Increase in the values of the above stated factors reduces the time for the dissolved oxygen concentration. Question 5 Why KLa ra ther than KL It is extremely impossible to measure KL alone. Therefore, to make KL measurable it has to be combined with a to form KLa (Volumetric mass – transfer coefficient) which is easier to determine Question 6 Polarographic oxygen electrode measure Polarographic system is used to measure dissolved oxygen. In this system, the measurement device known as a transducer is the Clark oxygen electrode. An oxygen monitor is the processing (coupling Device) and the recording device is a computer aided data system. Question 7 Importance of KLa KLa is important since it facilitates establishment of efficiency and also it helps in quantifying effects of operating variables that has to be applied on the provision of oxygen. Question 8 Techniques of determining KLa Sulfite oxidation technique In this process, the Oxygen transfer rate is determined by the oxidation of sulfite solution. Gassing-out techniques In this process, the estimation of KLa is done by monitoring the increase of dissolved oxygen in during the process of aeration and agitation. Question 9 From the graphing and the trend of the graph, it can be determined that as the agitation speed increases, the time taken for the dissolved oxygen to reach dissolved oxygen concentration is shortened. Bibliography Karimi, A., 2013. Oxygen mass transfer in a stirred tank bioreactor using different

Are Black Afro Caribbean boys underachieving within the Education Dissertation - 1

Are Black Afro Caribbean boys underachieving within the Education system that are born in the UK - Dissertation Example However, it is also important to understand that success is about opportunity. In the case of Black Afro Caribbean boys, the opportunity for them may also rely on the level of encouragement given to them for success. These children are mostly encouraged to participate in sports, dance or music, but not on professions such as in line with politics and law. The sole purpose is to make them role models in arts and entertainment (BBC News, 2011). Thus, these children are given less substantial background on politics and law but they are rather given much exposure in areas such as sports, dance or music. Certainly, there are different perceptions or ideas about achieving and under achieving. In short, the perception about success may vary. This means that Black Afro Caribbean boys can become successful when it comes to the opportunity given to them but not on areas where they are not given much exposure or encouragement. Prior to the understanding of underachieving among Black Afro Caribb ean boys within the UK’s education system, it is important to understand the derivation of acknowledgement of achievement. Achievement in the academe is given greater weight in the measurement of one’s level of attainment in life. Education particularly in the UK is given with great importance. That is why performing better in the academe has become a good measure of one’s success. There is only secondary evaluation given to areas which pertain to talents and skills. In line with this, Black Afro Caribbean boys are usually secluded from academic evaluation due to the fact that they are much exposed to sports, dance, music and other skill and talent related areas. However, the issue of racial discrimination especially among teachers on black Caribbean pupils exists in the education system (Thomas et al., 2009). In this way, the entire evaluation system may not be having enough solid foundation for concise evaluative process. Thus, more relevant bases are necessar y in order to find out how exactly black Caribbean pupils are performing in school. Objectives It is in line with this that the proponent of this paper tries to evaluate and find out if Black Afro Caribbean boys are really underachieving in the academe provided that they are much exposed to sports, dance, and music and even susceptible to racial discrimination. On the other hand, it is also part of this paper to define what exactly are the bases or standards used in evaluating under achievement among Black Afro Caribbean boys. The proponent will particularly answer the following questions at the end of the study. 1. What are the reasons why children underachieve in education? 2. Are black Afro Caribbean boys especially under achieving within the education system in the UK? 3. What are the reasons and effects of different education system in the UK on black afro Caribbean’s boys lerning? 4. What are the prevailing perception and acknowledgement of achieving and under achieving ? 5. How and where does the acknowledgement of achievement derive? 6. Do black afro Caribbean boys have the same opportunities or expectations to achieve? 7. Are black afro Caribbean boys affected by the lack of male role models? 8. Do teachers have low expectations of social groups such as looked after children, asylum seekers, single parented families and the disabled etc? Methodology The proponent in general would therefore investigate the reasons why

Sexual Selection and Human Evolution Theories

Sexual Selection and Human Evolution Theories Miller, G.F. A review of sexual selection and human evolution: How mate choice shaped human nature Natural selection shapes species to adapt to their environments and arises from individual differences in survival ability- cannot favour ornamental traits that decrease survivorship. However, it is not sufficient to account for male traits such as peacocks tail that do not enhance survivorship but rather jeopardize it. Darwin argued that in species with sexual reproduction traits that improved ones chances in mate competition were selected for regardless of their negative effects for survival. Furthermore, Darwin emphasized the importance of female choice and male competition within the sexual selection because the former evokes the latter. However, Darwin does not investigate the origins of female preference (Ridley, M). Sexual selection was neglected for a long time because it implied the major evolutionary importance of female choice and it was not well accepted by the contemporaries of Darwin. Darwin: evolution is differential reproduction rather than differential reproduction. Novel concept. Hard to do mathematical analysis. Alfred Russell Wallace who wrote about natural selection at the same time with Darwin believed that exaggerated male ornaments and traits did not have an adaptive purpose and did not result from female choice but from good health and genes that allowed males to spend resources on display. He suggested that females are under stronger natural selection to have less ornamentation to avoid attention from predators because they spend lot of time near their offspring (Miller, 2000). Fisher (1930) believed that mate selection criteria were biological and thus, under natural selection. He suggested that male sexual ornaments served as indicators of high fitness and good genetic quality and would be selected by females (Miller, 2000). Furthermore, he coined the term runaway sexual selection, which suggests an evolutionary feedback mechanism where female preferences reinforce and perpetuate the traits selected for in males. In the case of runaway selection females choose to mate with males who display a certain trait, subsequently, it will be passed on to the offspring who will then have the trait that makes them more attractive mates. This ultimately leads to phenomenon such as peacocks tail. In Fishers model the male trait was not deleterious at the start but with females preferring a particular characteristic it passed its optimum cost-benefit ratio, and ultimately, costly traits arise as the outcome of runaway sexual selection (Ridley). Zahavi. Trivers (1972) was the first to explain the different intensity of sexual selection in males and females through unequal amount of parental investment. The production of gametes is more costly and time-consuming than that of sperm. Also, females invest more resources into offspring, therefore, they must be choosy and by mating with high-quality male they enhance the quality of their offspring. Since the number of available females limits male reproduction success males have to court and compete for the females. Trivers suggested that the level of competition among males is correlated with the imbalance of parental investment. For example, there is a great difference in body size between male and female elephant seals where one male can guard 40 females, resulting in strong male-male competition. (Le Boeuf, 1974). Trivers theory can be applied to bird species like pharalorpes and wading birds where it is the females who are bigger, more colourful and aggressive compete with each other for males and males take care of the offspring (Jenni, 1974). Importance of sexual selection theory: it was disregarded for the most part of 20th century and many science and humanities subjects were advanced without taking sexual selection into account, thus, many theories may need to be revised. Ridley, M., 1993, Evolution, Ch12 Adaptations in sexual reproduction Traits that reduce survivorship are deleterious and are mainly present in males as secondary sexual characteristics that are not actually necessary for reproduction; however, they may give an advantage in mate competition with other males. The most famous example of secondary sexual characteristics is peacocks tail but also colourful plumage of birds, big antlers in elks etc. Although these traits are costly they have not been eliminated by natural selection. Darwins sexual selection theory suggests that the disadvantages in having elaborate secondary sexual characteristics are evened out because they convey a benefit in gaining access to females and increasing reproductive success. Darwin distributes sexual selection into two categories: male competition and female choice. Darwin argued that secondary sexual characteristics would be more developed in polygamous species where typically one male mates with several females because the selection for male traits that enhance reproduction will be greater. He provided evidence for sexual selection by comparing polygamous and monogamous species and showed that in the former males tend to have brighter colouring, ornaments and larger bodies whereas in the latter males and females differ less. Another theory that tries to explain mate choice criteria is Zahavis handicap theory (Zahavi, 1975). According to this, only males with good genes can survive with a handicapping trait, such as peacocks tail and females will prefer to mate with them. Selection will favour males with handicap traits if their good genes outweigh the cost of the trait. The high cost of handicapping character makes it an honest indicator of males quality. In his model the preferred male trait was costly to begin with and the expense did not change as the trait became more desired in females. Archer,J, Lloyd, B, 2002, Sex and gender, Ch 3 Origins Sexual selection entails female choice and females should choose mates according to their ability to provide the female and her offspring with resources and protection. Buss (1989) studied human mate preferences in 37 cultures and concluded that there is a strong trend for females valuing mates with greater financial capacity, ambition and sense of entrepreneurship. Archer and Lloyd suggest that this is consistent with Triverss theory where females are interested in finding a partner who would be able to invest more parental care into offspring by providing resources. Males preferred physical attractiveness and youth, which are traits correlated with reproductive capacity (Buss, 1989). Miller, G.F., 2000, The mating mind: How sexual choice shaped the evolution of human nature Darwin became interested in different animal ornamentation that he encountered on his around-the-world-trip on the board of the Beagle. In 1871 he published The decent of man, and selection in relation to sex where amongst other topics he wrote about sexual selection. Sexual selection shapes each sex in relation to the other sex. Many of Darwins ideas were attacked but after a century it was rediscovered. Dawkins, R., 1989, The selfish gene, Battle of the sexes One of the main female strategies of reproduction is that instead of expecting help from the male to raise the offspring the female prefers good genes instead. If a female can detect good quality males by using visual cues than her offspring will receive on better genetic material. By doing so the likelihood of her genes to survive increases too. Emlen, S.T., Oring, L.W., 1977, Ecology, sexual selection and the evolution of mating systems Environmental factors affect the development of mating systems and ultimately the intensity of sexual selection. Fitness is a measure for individuals reproductive success in relation to that of other individuals. Male reproductive success is limited by the access to females, whereas female reproductive success is determined by the available resources. Subsequently, if females limit the reproduction of males then the competition and sexual selection will intensify in males. The ability of a male to protect territory or other resources attracts more females and causes differences in the mating success of other males. The presence of polygamous and monogamous mating systems depends on environmental factors such as the availability of receptive mates and the distribution of resources in time and space, which affects their defensibility. Polygamy is more common in species where one sex is does not invest parental care, and thus, can spend time and energy on defending resources and competi ng for mates. Emlen and Oring (1977) suggest that sexual selection is stronger in polygamous species than in monogamous species. They point out that the more one sex manages to monopolize resources the stronger becomes sexual selection and the more likely is the development of polygamous mating system. Moreover, the mating system can differ between populations of the same species due to variations in environmental setting, population structure and density, amount and distribution of resources that all change the potential of monopolization. Andersson, M., Iwasa, Y., 1996, Sexual selection Sexual selection occurs through competition over mates, which is also the underlying factor of different mechanisms of sexual selection. Andersson and Iwasa (1996) list these different mechanisms: firstly, female and male choice of mate that has been demonstrated in numerous studies acts to favour traits that attract mates from the opposite sex; secondly, contests that can take the form of direct fighting and favour traits such as large body size, physical stamina, weaponry and other characteristics that enhance fighting ability in the competing sex; thirdly, endurance rivalry that promotes traits to retain reproductive activeness for longer to increase the possibility of mating. Furthermore, they also suggest scramble competition that promotes traits that help in finding the mate before others, such as earlier maturation or better locomotion skills. In addition, other mechanisms are infanticide, coercion and sperm competition. As Andersson and Iwasa (1996) point out, the majority of research has concerned mate choice and mate competition, whereas other mechanisms of sexual selection remain poorly examined. Owens and Thompson (1994) suggest that optimal mate choice is a trade-off between the number of mates and their quality. They argue that both males and females can be picky; however, the selection will be greater in the sex with higher reproductive rate. Batemans gradient explains the differential intensity of sexual selection in males and females. In his studies with Drosophila, Bateman showed that sexual selection is typically stronger in males because the number of offspring fathered by a male increases proportionally with the number of males, whereas the number of offspring remains the same for the female regardless of the amount of males she mates. Male secondary sexual characteristics may become more pronounced if they increase their reproductive success, although if it reduces the overall viability. The costs of these characteristics include higher threat of predation; large bodies pose higher energetic demands and increase the likelihood of starvation during the growth period; competition may lead to injuries and death. Thus, the extent of secondary sexual characteristics is limited by their costliness and by sexual selection itself if one favoured trait starts to compromise another selected trait. Sexual selection affects the genetic make-up of the offspring and thus, is an important factor in evolution. It is currently very difficult to discriminate between the different mechanisms of sexual selection and their importance.