Jet Airways :: Case Study

Introduction: Accounting is the pillar of every company to measure its growth, loss, revenue , capital, its really specify the real terms in foam of figures and sometimes in tables, in accounting there are certain rules are obtained to make more accuracy while playing with figures. To apply and the all ‘ rules of game‘of an business we taking an aviation company known as â€Å"Jet Airways† before we get into, here are some intro points about this company. History: Jet Airways was found in 1st April 1992 by Mr. Naresh Goyal and they started their operation after one year may 5th 1993, Jet began international operations from Chennai to Colombo in March 2004. The company was listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange Jet airways India’s second major airline in terms of market shares after Indigo airlines based at Mumbai known as India’s economic capital in addition to being its India’s widest network with 3000 flights a day with 76 destinations worldwide, main operations are handle from Mumbai but secondary hubs are Delhi (Nation Capital of India) Kolkata and Bangalore, It has an international hub at Brussels Airport, Belgium. Founder &Management: Naresh Goyal, the founder Chairman of Jet Airways, India’s premier airline, has over 4 decades of experience in the Civil Aviation industry. After graduating in commerce in 1967. Mr Goyal begin his travel business with GSA for Lebanese international airline, himself chairman holding 80% of company shares. Currently this airline running with six boards of directors: 1. Mr. Javed Akthar 2. Mr. Iftikar M. Kadr 3. Mr. Aman Mehta 4. Mr. James Hogan 5. Mr. Gaurang Shetty 6. Mr. James Rigney After an overview of jet airways now we mould its ratios and figures: Accounting Principles & Standards: Accounting principles are main consideration , certain standards like rules of operations are pillar characteristicis to built accounting statements. Accounting principles can be presented in many ways, sometimes its create confusion for readers mainly for beginners, but still acoounting principles are main tool to obtained financial statements. Its hold the whole acoounting process together. In order to make useful, there are some characteristics such as being practical and dependable. As a dependable for it must be acurate, unbiased and verifiable and practically accounting information must be compareable, prepared in a time frame, user friendly, consistent and able to differentiate. In accounting beside these characteristics, certain operational rules are obtained are following: †¢ How a firm matched their revenue with expenses †¢ At what time expenses are revenue has been reported

Plato vs. St. Augustine of Hippo Essay

Our world has developed and flourished by the thoughts and contributions of many leaders. Among those leaders were Saint Augustine and Pluto. For many historians, Plato’s Allegory of the Cave and Augustine’s The City of God, are historical pieces that point out what had happened during ancient times. These pieces are significant because they shed some light on different thoughts and beliefs of people. Even though these works do not have similar world views, they attempt to show guidance to human life and to their beliefs. In Plato’s Allegory of the Cave, he teaches a world view with an example of a cave filled with darkness that people inside should get out by finding the truth and seeing the light. On the other hand, in Augustine’s The City of God, a Christian author, perceived this world as a place where the heavens and the earth coexist. Even though they both showed some similarities on the concept of dualism, these two philosophers had quite different principles and foundational beliefs. Augustine lived in the time around the fourth century. He was born in Tagaste, a Roman province in northern Africa. During his life time, the Roman Empire was on the verge of weakening and later collapsed for good. And according to Brian Levack, one of the main reason for the collapse of the once great empire was due to invasion from many sides in addition to the â€Å"unwise decisions, weak leadership, and Military Failure† in the empire (Levack 190). During this time, Constantine (AD 272-337) strived to Christianize the Roman Empire and thus Christianity was spreading all over the empire; however, there were debates and disagreements in the doctrine of Christianity and thus there existed splits among Christians that gave rise to the division in the Roman Empire. It was during this time the idea of Monasticism and Donatism flourished. Greek and Roman philosophical thoughts existed in the fourth century. The origin of the philosophy is traced back to the classical age of Greece. At that time, many thoughts emanated from different philosophers, each with their own views. However, as many would agree, Plato (ca.429-327  B.C.E) was the most prominent philosophers in the realm of ancient philosophy. He was influenced by the scientific thoughts of people that existed long before him. Since Plato was a student of Socrates, his teachings and beliefs have paved a way for Plato which in turn influenced Aristotle. Plato’s Allegory of the Cave, clearly explains his philosophical thoughts and understanding. Basically, this work is a dialogue between Socrates, his mentor, and Glaucon (Plato’s brother). The work paints a picture of prisoners tightly chained in a cave in an attempt to describe the nature of justice –one of the â€Å"absolute forms.† Above these prisoners is a fire that casts a shadow of objects that pass through the way between the fire and them. He describes that for the prisoners that are unable to see anything but only the shadows casted by the objects on the wall of the cave. Plato further explains that if any one among the prisoners is set free and is forced to look up to the light, he will be suffer from its glitter on his eyes till he adjusts to it. If told that what he used to observe in the caves was an illusion, he will not be well convinced and would rather choose to go back to the cave where he will claim what he sees in the cave is a reality . However, if he is forced to stay in the world above, he will see the reality, the objects themselves: â€Å"And first he will see the shadows best, next the reflections of men and other objects in the water, and then the objects themselves.† After having a thorough understanding of the reality in the above world, if he returned back to the cave, his vision will be filled with darkness and requires time to adjust. And even if he does, he, along with his ideas and believes will not be accepted among other prisoners. As mentioned above the works and contributions of these philosophical thoughts and ideologies had shaped influential people in the world of Christianity and among them was Augustine. In his early days, his parents sent him to Carthage for his rhetorical education. During his stay, he was struck by the search for truth. And this quest led him to the probe in to the Manichaeism ideology which was widely spread at the time. However, after discovering that the ideology could not bring the solutions what he was longing for, he become interested in neo-Platonic ideas while he was in Milan. This interest of his compelled him to become a Neo-Platonist (Gonzalez 210). During the time of Augustine, Christianity was spreading through the Roman Empire before the time of its downfall. Also, divisions occurred in the Empire after the death of Constantine, who is credited for his attempt to unify the churches in the Empire. Levack mentions that the Huns, Alaric and Vandals played great role that contributed for the collapse of the once great empire in the year A.D 410(191). In addition to this, many sources point out many reasons for downfall of the Empire, but most of them point their fingers at the transformation of the Empire to Christianity. According to historians, Polytheist claims that Christians were more interested to serve God than the Empire and have a sense of forgiveness towards enemies. Therefore both polytheist and pagans stressed that the Christian God failed to protect the Empire. In an attempt to prove Christianity was not a threat, and also to clear the misconception about the allegation that the Church profoundly contributed to the Roman collapse, Augustine wrote The City of God. Basically, the work mainly revolves around two cities: The Earthly city and the Heavenly city. The earthly city is a typical example of a place, presumably inhabited by pagans and polytheist and is found on earth. On the contrary, the heavenly city sojourns on earth. He makes a comparison between the two. He says that both are formed by two loves: â€Å"the earthly by the love of self† and that of the heavenly by the love of God. While the earthly city pleasures from the glorification of itself and its men, the heavenly counterpart pleasures in the glorification of God. The earthly operates on its own; that is, with the power, wisdom and rule of men while the heavenly is fully dependent on God. Augustine criticizes men of the earthly city for excessive pride in their own wis dom and for unthinkable representations of the image of God they made to worship, and this men that he is referring to are neo-Platonists. Augustine explains the two opposing aspects that exist in the city: peace and Conflict. He mentions that the earthly city is characterized by arguments, wars, and quarrels. Although victories over such aspects exist, he claims that it is either â€Å"life destroying† or â€Å"short-lived.† On the contrary, he points out that the heavenly city is characterized by the existence of everlasting victory and â€Å"never-ending† peace. He sets a clear demarcation between different aspects of both the heavenly and earthly cities. He explains the necessity to live by faith so as to escape the distraction of  that surrounds to deceive families. During his time, since the idea of monasticism and pilgrimage was well known, he encourages that families practice these idea to their advantage to gain heavenly blessings and everlasting peace, and lessen the burdens of the body, a prominent goals of all human beings that live in both cities. However, he contends that their appro aches are totally different: the earthly city has its own set of rules designed by the will and desires of men. Also, the earthly city has ideologies and principles set forth by philosophers, such as polytheists, who Augustine thinks are foolish for their earthly wisdom and understanding of the truth, and yet deceived themselves would also deceive the inhabitants of the earthly city: â€Å"the earthly city has had some philosophers whose doctrine is condemned by the divine teaching, and who, being deceived†¦supposed that many gods must be invited to take part in the interest in human affairs†¦Ã¢â‚¬  furthermore he explains that there would always a discord between both cities, and everlasting peace on earth could be attained through the unity in worshiping one God. Augustine’s City of God was one of his influence works that left positive marks on the thoughts and beliefs of many generations after him. According to Michael W. Goheen and Craig G. Bartholomew in Living at the Crossroads, he played a vital role in influencing the thoughts of many that provided structures for med ieval culture. But still they point out that this work of his is a combination of elements of Scripture and neo-Platonism (77). This shades some light on how he was deeply influenced by Greek and Roman Philosophical thoughts prevalent during his time. Besides, Goheen and Bartholomew argue that Augustine’s deep immersion in neo-platonic thoughts had an adverse effect on the development of western culture (77). This is evident in most of his works that â€Å"bore a [n]eo-Platonic stamp† (Gonzalez 212). Finally, if it was not for Augustine’s works, the Christianity that we have today might be different. It was through his work that became an influential theologian that paved the way for both medieval and modern Christianity: Walsh and Middleton label him as â€Å"the father of middle ages† (111). Although some say that his immersion in neo-platonic thoughts had negative consequences, Gonzalez points out that he was the most quoted theologian in the Middle Ages and thus â€Å"became one of the great doctors of the Roman Catholic Church† (216). It cannot be denied that his biblical world view has some stains of platonic philosophical  views; however, some of these thoughts have some similarity to th e bible. For instance, Plato assumed that there is a supernatural power which he labels as the â€Å"One† which is the reason for the existence of everything. Besides, he point out that there is another world beyond human existence –a world which he calls the â€Å"above world,† which exists at a higher level beyond the existence of humans. This assumption is akin to that of what the bible states as the Heavens. Thus, although Augustine’s works, thoughts and world views are deeply influenced be Greek and Roman Philosophies, he is still the â€Å"favorite theologian† and the most prominent figures for his significant contributions profoundly contributed to the realm of Christianity. As a Christian, I was surprised to discover that how these works are still influential in our world today. Furthermore, these works will broaden the minds of Christians in terms of the history of Christianity and its doctrine. Finally I contend that these historical pieces will gi ve a slight sense of the theological and philosophical world views and broadens ones understanding. Works Cited Augustine. â€Å"The City of God-excerpts on the Two Cities†, Medieval Sourcebook, July 1998. Stephen, Cooper. Augustine for Armchair Theologians, 2002. Print. Plato. â€Å"The Allegory of the cave†, The History Guide, May 2004. Goheen, Michael W., and Craig G. Bartholomew. Living at the Crossroads. Grand Rapids: Baker Publishing Group, 2008. Print. Gonalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity. Peabody: Prince Press, 2007. Print. Levack, Brian, Edward Muir, Meredith Veldman, and Michael Mass. The West. N.p.: Pearson Education, 2007. Print. Walsh, Brian J., and Richard Middleton. The Transforming Vision. Downers Grove: Inter Varsity Press, 1984. Print.

Greek Chorus in History - 2120 Words

THE GREEK CHORUS SMALL PLACE IN HISTORY The history of the Greek Chorus can be traced back to a relatively small time period; from the original Dithyrambs, to Thespis small, but revolutionizing changes to the system, to Aeschylus triple entente of tragedies The Oresteia, which included the infamous Agamemnon. To truly understand the Greek Chorus, and what role it was meant to play when it was created and thereafter altered, one has to go back to the beginning of timeÂ…which in this case happens to be somewhere around the seventh century, B.C. During this time, the festival of Dionysus was held annually in Athens to celebrate and honor the god for which it was named. Dionysus, being the Greek (and Roman) god of wine and of an†¦show more content†¦When Clytemnestra speaks to the chorus that the Achaeans had taken Troy that very night, they are skeptical and poke fun at her in their disbelief. Yet how can I be certain? Is there some evidence?... Is it dream visions, easy to believe, you credit?... The cha rm, then, of some rumor, that made rich your hope? (Grene and Lattimore 13) To be fair, Clytemnestras not the only one whos been unfaithful; Agamemnon came home with his new slave, Cassandra, who happens to be the sister of Paris and Hector. And while Agamemnon hasnt really been true to his wife, it really wasnt considered a bad thing for a man to have more than one partner in those timesÂ…if anything, it was applauded by all but the original partner(s) of the promiscuous man and some of the more snobbish common women. It was a bad thing for a woman to have more than one male partner, however, because women were allowed very little rights. But more to the topic, the chorus acquired some sympathy from the audience for, not only their King Agamemnon, but also to his new lady, Cassandra.Show MoreRelatedEssay on The Function of the Greek Chorus1002 Words   |  5 Pagesmilestones, and popular morality. 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King Oedipus’s brother in-law; Creon, reports back from the oracle of Apollo that the plague would only be lifted if the murderer of his predecessor; King Laius, is found and brought to justice. Before the whole city of Thebes, Oedipus vows to apprehend and punishRead MoreEssay on Ancient Greek Theatre1179 Words   |  5 PagesThe Greek theatre tradition of the time was rooted in the spirituality of its people, developed with the help and instruction from the politicians of the day and analysed by the philosophical contingent of the age. To discover how the theatre tradition of the fifth century was influenced by the spiritual, philosophical and political mindset of its time, one must first look at how the theatre of this age was first developed. The Greek theatre tradition was born at a theatre built beneath the

The Boston Massacre John Adams and Captain Preston

John Adams believed that the rule of law should be paramount and that the British soldiers involved in the Boston Massacre deserved a fair trial. What Happened in 1770 On March 5, 1770, a small gathering of colonists in Boston were tormenting British soldiers. Unlike normal, the taunting on this day led to an escalation of hostilities. There was a sentry standing in front of the Custom House who talked back to the colonists. More colonists then arrived on the scene. In fact, the church bells began ringing which led to even more colonists arriving on the scene. Church bells were typically rung in cases of fire. Crispus Attucks Captain Preston and a detachment of seven or eight soldiers were surrounded by Boston citizens who were angry and taunting the men. Attempts to calm the gathered citizens were useless. At this point, something happened that caused a soldier to fire their musket into the crowd. Soldiers including Captain Prescott claimed the crowd had heavy clubs, sticks, and fireballs. Prescott said that the soldier who shot first was hit by a stick. Just like with any confusing public event, a number of disparate accounts were given about the actual chain of events. What is known is that after the first shot more followed. In the aftermath, several people were wounded and five were dead including  an African-American named Crispus Attucks. The Trial John Adams led the defense team, assisted by Josiah Quincy. They faced off against the prosecutor, Samuel Quincy, Josiahs brother. They waited seven months to start the trial in order to let the furor die down. However, in the meantime, the Sons of Liberty had started a major propaganda effort against the British. The six-day trial, quite long for its time, was held in late October. Preston pleaded not guilty, and his defense team called witnesses to show who actually yelled the word Fire. This was central to proving whether Preston was guilty. The witnesses contradicted themselves and each other. The jury was sequestered and after deliberating, they acquitted Preston. They used the basis of reasonable doubt as there was no proof he actually did order his men to fire. The Verdict The verdicts effect was huge as the leaders of the rebellion used it as further proof of Great Britains tyranny. Paul Revere created his  famous engraving of the event  that he titled, The Bloody Massacre perpetrated in King Street. The Boston Massacre is often pointed to as an event that presaged the Revolutionary War. The event soon  became a rallying cry for the Patriots. While  John Adams actions made him unpopular with the Patriots in Boston for several months, he was able to overcome this stigma due to his stance that he defended the British through principle rather than sympathy for their cause.

Analysis of Before the Rain Essay - 650 Words

Analysis of Before the Rain Before the Rain, filmed on location in the Republic of Macedonia and in London is a trilogy that focuses on the conflict between Muslims and Orthodox Christians in the Balkans. The three chapters of the trilogy are Words, Faces and Pictures. Director Milcho Manchevski states; Before the Rain, refers to the feeling of heavy expectation, when the skies are pregnant with the possibility of an outburst, when people are silent, waiting for a tragedy of cleansing(1). The movie is a circle in itself, showing the reoccurring cycles of violence and hate. In the first chapter, Words, the audience is introduced to Kirkil, a Macedonian Monk who has taken a vow of†¦show more content†¦The construction of Manchevskis story is intended to demonstrate the futility of ancient hatreds. There are a few moments in the film in which hatred of others is greater than love of ones own. Imagine a culture where a man would ra ther kill his daughter than allow her to love a man from another culture, and one will have an idea of the depth of bitterness in this film, the insane lengths to which men can be driven by belief and prejudice ( Ebert 3). Mise-en-scene is a French term roughly translated as what is put into the Scene. Before the Rain, uses examples of mise-en-scene through out the movie. Each of the three chapters is opened with a plane flying across a blue sky. The purpose to incorporate the plane in each part is used by Manchevski to show a sense of escape. In the third chapter, the plane Aleksander is on lands in Macedonia. This symbolizes Aleksanders desire to be home, while the other citizens of Albania and Macedonia would rather escape by flying away. The deliberate use of the sky in each chapter of the movie is used by Manchevski to show the heavy expectation†¦ when the people are silent, waiting for a tragedy of cleansing(Manchevski 1). 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Supply and Demand in the Gasoline Market Essay Example For Students

Supply and Demand in the Gasoline Market Essay Supply and Demand in the Gasoline Market Essay The substance known, as gasoline is a mixture of lighter liquid hydrocarbons used chiefly as a fuel for internal-combustion engines. It is produced by the fractional distillation of petroleum; by condensation or adsorption from natural gas; by thermal or catalytic decomposition of petroleum or its fractions; by the hydrogenation of producer gas or coal; or by the polymerization of hydrocarbons of lower molecular weight. Gasoline produced by the direct distillation of crude petroleum is known as straight-run gasoline. This is the type of gasoline, which we use in our automobiles. It is this which makes gasoline a product that is indispensable and also makes it highly demandable from the driving public. Category: Business Paper Title: Supply and Demand in the Gasoline Market Text: Supply and Demand in the Gasoline Market The substance known, as gasoline is a mixture of lighter liquid hydrocarbons used chiefly as a fuel for internal-combustion engines. It is produced by the fractional distillation of petroleum; by condensation or adsorption from natural gas; by thermal or catalytic decomposition of petroleum or its fractions; by the hydrogenation of producer gas or coal; or by the polymerization of hydrocarbons of lower molecular weight. Gasoline produced by the direct distillation of crude petroleum is known as straight-run gasoline. This is the type of gasoline, which we use in our automobiles. It is this which makes gasoline a product that is indispensable and also makes it highly demandable from the driving public. Thus the price of gasoline can also have a direct affect on what types of cars people will buy. One of the problems with gasoline is that it is, for now, the main fuel for automobiles and because of that it has become a necessity for most of the many Americans who own cars and have no choice but to drive to get to work, as well as in many other parts of the world. It is this constant need for gasoline to get us around which makes the demand part of it very high. On the supply side is where OPEC comes in, because they are the main suppliers for the gasoline for the world at large. The Organization of Petroleum Producing Countries (OPEC) is a permanent, intergovernmental organization, created at the Baghdad Conference of September 10-14, 1960, by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. The five Founding Members were later joined by eight other Members: Qatar (1961); Indonesia (1962); Socialist Peoples Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1962); United Arab Emirates (1967); Algeria (1969); Nigeria (1971); Ecuador (1973-1992) and Gabon (1975-1994). OPECs objective is to co-ordinate and unify petroleum policies among its Member Countries, in order to secure fair and stable prices for the petroleum producers; an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consuming nations; and a fair return on capital to those investing in the industry (OPEC Web site). OPECs decisions have a direct effect on the price we pay for gas, both here in America and around the world. If they decide that they want to raise the price of petroleum to $30 per barrel, then the price per gallon at the gas station will go up accordingly. Likewise, if OPEC decides to lower the price per barrel of gasoline, then OPECs decision would have a direct effect on the market price of the gas at the gas station. The supply-demand issues in the domestic gasoline market affect all different parts of the economy. For example, when the price for gas was extremely low about a year or so ago, people started to purchase more cars and many of the vehicles purchased were Sport Utility Vehicles (SUVs). These vehicles have larger engines and tend to consume much more gasoline than the smaller, more fuel-efficient cars. (I know this to be true, because during that time I purchased a Jeep Wrangler, which holds and uses more gas than the smaller car that I used to own.) Now the price per gallon is at least 60 cents higher then it was a year ago, which, if you do the numbers as to how much gas people use, makes it an incredible increase. Since the use of gasoline is an absolute necessity if you own a car, then you have no choice but to pay the higher price, since at this point in time alternative fueled vehicles arent that cost efficient. .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b , .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b .postImageUrl , .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b , .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b:hover , .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b:visited , .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b:active { border:0!important; } .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b:active , .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u96b8e286c0515dbdbcc2fc28f056f89b:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Creativity in Dreams The mind at its Creative Peak Essay In this paper I have tried to explain how the supply and demand of gasoline and its use in automobiles can affect the economy. In conclusion, until such time that gasoline is no longer needed to run automobiles there will be a constant demand for the product, and there will always be organizations such as OPEC around to supply it. Works Cited Brue, Stanley L. and McConnell, Campbell R. . Economics: Principles, Problems, and Policies. Fourteenth Edition. .

Social Control and the Salem Witch Trials Research Paper Example

Social Control and the Salem Witch Trials Paper In life, individuals form groups to obtain a desired good more effectively. This good typically cannot be produced individually, and this particular goods availability is generally limited outside the group. Thus, it seems that it is in an individuals best interest to remain a part of this group and work effectively with other members to produce their desired collective good. However, when members are faced with two opposing courses of action, one which will benefit their individual end and the other that will benefit the group collectively, there are always group members that will choose to pursue the individual end. Using the factors that affect group solidarity it is possible to explain why deviants sometimes pursue their own individual self-interest, and conversely, what causes some latent deviants to remain reputable group members committed to the solidarity of the group. In his book Principles of Group Solidarity, Michael Hechter lists several factors that effect group solidarity. According to Hechter, group solidarity can be defined as each group members willingness to contribute to the interest of the entire group, or the public. Within the group, solidarity varies for two main reasons; the extensiveness of each individuals obligations, and each individuals compliance with their obligations. Dissecting each of these reasons Hechter concludes that an individuals extensiveness of their group obligations will increase when each group member is dependent on one another to produce their desired good. Also, an individuals compliance with their group obligations will increase when the group is effectively monitored, and when sanctions are properly levied. We will write a custom essay sample on Social Control and the Salem Witch Trials specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Social Control and the Salem Witch Trials specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Social Control and the Salem Witch Trials specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Thus, according to Hechter, a group will exhibit solidarity when the members are interdependent on one another to produce their desired good, and an appropriate system of monitoring exists that yields sanctions to deviants. Nevertheless, group solidarity is only as strong as the group member most willing to deviate from their obligations to the group and pursue their own self-interest. Hechter explains that the rational egoist will choose the course of action that, given the information available to them and their ability to process it, they think will produce maximum utility. (Hechter, 30) If the rational egoist chooses to pursue an individual end, rather than the collective interest of the group, this decision could lead to the eventual downfall of the group. Given this account, one would be led to believe that at any time rational group members would deviate from the group in order to satisfy their own self-interests. But as we are about to see, the factors outlined earlier exist to prevent latent deviants from pursuing their individual end. Furthermore, there are some cases when it truly is in the best interest of the individual to pursue the end that will benefit the group collectively, because in turn they will benefit greater from that course of action. We will now look at several examples to show what factors influence the solidarity of a group. Initially, lets consider a rotating credit association, in which a group of individuals contribute to a common fund that is held by each individual for a certain length of time. In order to form such an organization, group solidarity must exist. Each member of the group must feel a sense of dependence on the other members to comply with their obligation to regularly contribute to the fund. Ordinarily, members of a rotating credit association know a great deal about each other; where each member lives, what each member does for a living, etc. Therefore, a high degree of visibility exists among the members, which serves to strengthen the efforts to monitor the group and sanction deviants. In addition, the notion of reputation in the group plays an important role; the individual serves to protect their familys good name by acting in a reputable manner. Yet, there always exists the risk that an individual (a rational egoist) will run off with the fund while it is their turn in the rotation to hold the money, thereby causing the group to collapse and leaving the others without access to credit. In this case, one can reason that deviation is less likely because each member of the group is highly interdependent on one another. Also, unless the deviant planned on completely disappearing from society he would have a hard time making future business transactions. Word of the deviants action would spread making it very unlikely for him to get involved with another credit association or business venture. Thus, remaining in good standing with the rotating credit association is in the best interest of the individual. Now lets turn to another example, insurance groups. We will focus on two such organizations, British friendly societies and American fraternal ethnic associations. In essence these groups were the first formalized insurance funds. Their main purpose was to offer payments to their members in the event of sickness, death, disability, a bad crop, or temporary layoff. In addition to their role as benefactors the insurance groups provided their members with other collective goods. The British friendly societies fostered a social environment in which their members would be able to have a release from their daily routine. The groups often staged their meetings in taverns, and held summer picnics and other such events for the members families. Similarly, the American fraternal ethnic associations provided a means for recent immigrants to stay in tune with their native culture through music, dance, and sporting events. Also, the ethnic associations offered educational and linguistic resources to assist their members with assimilating into their new environment in America. As one can see the benefits of being a part of an insurance group were immense. However, keeping the insurance fund solvent was an equally immense undertaking. There were myriad problems the fund could encounter. If everyone in the insurance group was about the same age depletion of the fund would occur at or around the same time period. Thus, the insurance group had to maintain a steady flow of new entrants to guard against future collapse. If one or a few individuals had sole control over the insurance fund, fraudulent members could embezzle and figure that nobody will notice. Thus, selection of trustworthy and upright officers was important in order to maintain the fund and safeguard against improper distribution. These two problems represent issues that required monitoring, and also sanctions if the situation warranted such action. In order for group solidarity to exist group members had to take a proactive role in the decision making process of issuing insurance benefits. Deviants could easily file a false claim, steal money from the fund, demand more money than they should, or even exhibit more careless behavior than they otherwise would without insurance (a phenomenon known as moral hazard). Yet, generally speaking, most insurance group members complied with their obligation to regularly contribute and enabled the insurance fund to persist. Using the examples drawn from Hechters book in the form of rotating credit associations and insurance groups one can distinguish what factors affect some deviants to pursue their own individual self-interest. If an individual in a group feels as though the extensiveness of their obligations is too comprehensive they will no longer comply with the groups rules. The deviant may decide to free-ride, in which he collects the groups collective good without contributing. The deviant may leave himself open for an unfavorable response from other group members, which will eventually result in sanctions or removal from the group. The deviant may also decide to steal, or embezzle from the group, thereby solidifying their expulsion. The deviant may even decide to start a rival or competing group with more favorable conditions. Conversely, other factors cause individuals to remain reputable group members committed to the solidarity of the group. Basing this on rational choice theory it may be the case that an individual group members self-interest parallels the collective interest of the group. In this situation the individual is acting as a rational egoist in remaining aligned with the goals of the group. Pursuing the collective interest of the group maximizes the individuals utility. Undoubtedly, this is the major reason individuals form groups in the first place, to collectively obtain a desired good more effectively. Additionally, other factors including maintaining a good reputation in the community, and fear of sanctions, guide some latent deviants to pursue the collective interest of the group. They are better off as part the group. Going against the group will only serve to subject these individuals to undue hardship and ill-feelings from people whom they share common interests with. However, without some sort of social control or peer pressure, it is likely to assume that more deviation from the pursuit of the collective good would exist. This notion is exhibited through Arthur Millers portrayal of the Salem witch trials in the movie The Crucible. For our analysis we will consider Salem, Massachusetts, a community that exhibited group solidarity. The entire town worked together to maintain a certain standard of living for their families. Salem had a carpenter, blacksmith, minister, sheriff, several farmers, and servants, all who worked together to produce a collective good for the community; a comfortable standard of living. Despite the groups interdependence on one another, the system began to fall apart in the face of a crisis. When members of the community were faced with two opposing courses of action regarding communication with the devil, some chose to pursue their individual end, while others chose to pursue the course of action that benefited the group collectively. The predominant reason that allowed such a large faction to pursue their individual end revolves around the courts decision to believe Abigail Williams and her crew. By and large, these girls did not contribute to the welfare of the community; they acted as free-riders. For the girls, non-compliance with the groups obligations was easy. They were rarely monitored, and stringent sanctions could result in their families acquiring a reputation for producing deviants. Thus, most conflicts were pushed under the table or out of sight, to save face in the community. Furthermore, even the court failed to follow proper procedure. The trial consisted of the accused either agreeing to prior communication with the devil, or denying the accusation and facing the consequence of death. There was no middle ground, no logical though process, the girls had created hysteria in Salem. Several group members were hung based on the whimsical testimony of a group of deviants. Not surprisingly, Abigail and the girls initially picked on the group members with the lowest levels of status in the community including, beggars and peasants. By establishing their accusations on these unfavorable group members the girls were able to create a snowball effect, in which more and more people began to believe that certain members did in fact participate in communication with the devil. Before too long the girls were in too deep to ever admit guilt. In turn, they created their own group, with their own interdependence rested solely on the premise of not getting caught. At this point a traitor from within would result in death for them all. When Mary Warren, under the supervision of John Proctor, attempted to rectify the girls wrongs, Abigail led a flamboyant reprisal which made Mary Warren look like she had lost her mind. Eventually, once Abigail realized these trials could not persist indefinitely she decided to flee Salem and deviate from yet another group. During her rampage in Salem, Abigails relentless pursuit of her own individual end transformed the culture of the community. While Abigail and her crew of deviants broke down the community, others including John Proctor, and Reverend Hale gave their all to pursue the collective end most beneficial to the solidarity of the group. If we look back on Hechters factors that affect group solidarity (the extensiveness of each individuals obligations, and each individuals compliance with their obligations), we can see why these individuals fostered the collective interest of the group. Proctor, despite his relations with Abigail, represented the community member who looked out for the well-being of his group members. Proctor understood that interdependence of the group, and maintaining a good reputation for his family, would benefit the community and his family in the long run. When faced with the ultimate question, death with dignity or life with disgrace, Proctor chose the course of action that would eliminate these problems for Salem in the future. He took the ultimate sacrifice for the good of the community. Similar to Proctors course of action, Reverend Hale, realized that something must be done to suppress the deviants from creating any further problems. Having prior experience in uncovering witchcraft, Reverend Hale was initially called in to assess the situation and if the need existed, eradicate the devil from Salem. Unexpectedly, once he had a chance to fully analyze the situation it became clear that the girls who were allegedly suffering from witchcraft were the source of the problem. In an effort to comply with his obligations to Salem, Reverend Hale urged Judge Danforth to see beyond the girls deviant actions. He knew John Proctor was telling the truth, he knew Abigail was lying when she alleged Elizabeth Proctors spirit stabbed a needle in her abdomen, he knew the situation in Salem was out of control. Individuals were being put to death and Reverend Hale was trying his hardest to correct the situation. Relating John Proctors and Reverend Hales actions to Hechters reasoning, one would conclude that as the Salem witch trials progressed the extensiveness of their obligations to the community increased. These two men realized that the welfare of the community rested on their shoulders. In order for Salem to remain solvent in the years to come, free from the grips of the deviants who preached witchcraft, John Proctor needed to stand up against Judge Danforth and set an example. To John Proctor, his strong personal ties within the group, the cost of moving away from Salem, and the value he placed on his familys good name, were stronger than life itself. To Reverend Hale, the pursuit to benefit the collective welfare of Salem, his original mission, was of the utmost importance. As we have now seen through several examples, group solidarity varies for two main reasons; the extensiveness of each individuals obligations, and each individuals compliance with their obligations. When group members are faced with two opposing courses of action, one which will benefit their individual end and the other that will benefit the group collectively, the individual subliminally considers each variant and chooses a course of action. Based on factors including, the interdependence of the group, the visibility of each group member, the probability of getting caught (monitoring), and the probability of facing a sanction, the rational egoist choose[s] the course of action that they think will produce maximum utility. (Hechter, 30) Hence, in each group there exist members who will always be more inclined to deviate than others. The degrees to which these factors are employed within the group determine the actual level of deviation from the pursuit of the collective interest of the group. I am particularly happy with the way that I make sure each topic/example relates to the thesis and gives examples to substantiate the claim. As far as Im concerned the paper flows well from one thought to another. I didnt necessarily have any trouble writing the paper, although there were times when I did not think that I would be able to reach about 9 pages. Based on my outline, I figured Id have to cut down, or simplify the paper, but that proved not to be the case.